Surface Plasmon Resonance (SPR): Standard running buffer for biosensor assays, maintaining ionic strength and reducing nonspecific binding.

ELISA: Wash and sample/antibody dilution buffer to improve signal-to-noise in plate-based immunoassays.

Western Blot: Wash buffer and antibody diluent to minimize background during immunodetection.

Immunoprecipitation/Affinity Purification: Wash buffer to preserve specific interactions while limiting nonspecific binding.

Flow Cytometry: Staining and dilution buffer for cells and antibodies at physiological pH.

Protein–Protein/Ligand Binding Assays: Assay buffer for kinetic and equilibrium interaction studies.

Cell-Based Assays: Physiological pH buffering for live-cell applications and compound screening.

Microarrays/Bead-Based Assays: Wash and hybridization buffer to reduce nonspecific interactions.

Sample Preparation: Protein dilution and short-term storage buffer to maintain stability.

Plate Washing: General wash buffer for high-binding and low-binding assay plates.